Business Letter to the Editor for Western Herald Essay Example for Free

Business Letter to the Editor for Western Herald Essay Overview: With the previous unit, we explored personal writing suitable for academic audiences by reading scholarship from monographic texts and academic journals. For this unit, we’ll shift our emphasis to public writing that is also suitable for academic audiences. While we’ll plan to read academic scholarship, we’ll also explore different genres for which academic texts are suitable, including editorial publications. More specifically, we’ll look at opinions and letters to the editor published by the Western Herald. As we plan to work specifically with the letter to the editor genre, we’ll pay close attention to how argumentation styles, uses of evidence, and consultation of sources differs when writing a scholarly autobiographical academic essay. To prepare for the composition of editorials, we’ll read sample letters to the editors, and arguments pertaining to cultural diversity. The Task Your task will be to compose a letter to the editor that is suitable for publication in Western Herald. For this letter, you will select an issue that you are passionate about on Western’s Campus or the surrounding Kalamazoo area. Your letter should respond to the following questions: What specific issue matters most to me right now? Why should this issue matter to readers of Western Herald? To complete this assignment, you’ll first want to become familiar with the  editorial requirements for submitting letters to Western Herald. These requirements can be found on http://www.westernherald.com/letter-to-the-editor/ Next, you’ll want to read a few letters to the editor published by Western Herlad to get a sense of the stylistics conventions and argumentation strategies authors used to compose these editorials. Finally, you’ll consult course texts that discuss multiculturalism and diversity. You’ll also plan to locate, evaluate, and consult additional editorials and academic essays that address issues of linguistic diversity. In essence, you’ll need to reference sufficient and appropriate evidence necessary for persuading readers of your argument.

Importance Of Communication Of Nurses Nursing Essay

Importance Of Communication Of Nurses Nursing Essay Communication involves the exchange of messages and is a process which all individuals participate in. Whether it is through spoken word, written word, non-verbal means or even silence, messages are constantly being exchanged between individuals or groups of people (Bach Grant 2009). All behaviour has a message and communication is a process which individuals cannot avoid being involved with (Ellis et al 1995). In nursing practice, communication is essential, and good communication skills are paramount in the development of a therapeutic nurse/patient relationship. This aim of this essay is to discuss the importance of communication in nursing, demonstrating how effective communication facilitates a therapeutic nurse/patient relationship. This will be achieved by providing a definition of communication, making reference to models of communication and explaining how different types of communication skills can be used in practise. In order to engage in meaningful communication and develop effective communication skills, nurses must engage in the process of reflecting on how communication skills are utilised in practise. Reflection allows the nurse opportunity to gain a deeper insight into personal strengths and weaknesses and to address any areas of concern in order to improve future practise (Taylor 2001). A further aim will be to reflect on how communication skills have been utilised within nursing practise. Various models of reflection will be examined, and a reflective account of a personal experience which occurred during placement will be provided using a model. This reflective account will involve a description the incident, an analysis of thoughts and feelings and an evaluation of what has occurred. Finally, the reflective account will include an action plan for a similar situation, which may arise, in the future. Communication involves information being sent, received and decoded between two or more people (Balzer-Riley 2008) and involves the use of a number of communication skills; which in a nursing context generally focuses on listening and giving information to patients (Weller 2002). This process of sending and receiving messages has been described as both simple and complex (Rosengren 2000 in McCabe 2006, p.4). It is a process which is continually utilised by nurses to convey and receive information from the patient, co-workers, others they come into contact with and the patients family. Models of Communication. The Linear Model is the simplest form of communication and involves messages being sent and received by two or more people (McCabe 2006). Whilst this model demonstrates how communication occurs in its simplest form, it fails to consider other factors impacting on the process. Communication in nursing practice can be complicated, involving the conveyance of large amounts of information, for example, when providing patients with information relating to their care and treatment or when offering health promotion advice. In contrast, the Circular Transactional Model is a two way approach, acknowledging other factors, which influence communication such as feedback and validation (McCabe 2006). Elements of this model are also contained in Hargie and Dickinsons (2004) A Skill Model of Interpersonal Communication which suggests that successful communication is focused, purposeful and identifies the following skills; person centred context, goal, mediating process, response, feedback and perception. It also considers other aspects of the individual and the influence these may have on their approach to the process of communication (McCabe 2006). For communication to be effective it is important for the nurse to recognise key components, and intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which may affect the process (McCabe 2006). They must consider factors such as past personal experiences, personal perceptions, timing and the setting in which communication occurs. Physical, physiological, psychological and semantic noise may also influence the message, resulting in misinterpreted by the receiver (McCabe 2006). Communication skills. Communication consists of verbal and non-verbal. Verbal communication relates to the spoken word and can be conducted face-to-face or over the telephone (Docherty McCallum 2009). Nurses continually communicate with patients; verbal communication allows the nurse opportunity to give information to the patient about their care or treatment, to reassure the patient and to listen and respond to any concerns the patient may have (NMC 2008). Effective communication is beneficial to the patient in terms of their satisfaction and understanding, of care and treatment they have been given (Arnold Boggs 2007), while at the same time optimising the outcomes or care and/or treatment for the patient (Kennedy- Sheldon 2009). Questioning allows the nurse to gather further information and open or closed questions can be used. Closed questions usually require a yes or no response and are used to gather the necessary information, whereas open questions allow the patient, opportunity to play an active role and to discuss and agree options relating to their care as set out in the Healthcare Standards for Wales document (2005). Probing questions can be used to explore the patients problems further thus allowing the nurse to treat the patient as an individual and develop a care plan specific to their individual needs (NMC 2008). It is vital that the nurse communicates effectively, sharing information with the patient about their health in an understandable way to ensure the patient is fully informed about their care and treatment and that consent is gained prior to this occurring (NMC 2008). The nurse should also listen to the patient and respond to their concerns and preferences about their care and well-being (NMC 2008). In nursing, listening is an essential skill and incorporates attending and listening (Burnard Gill 2007). Attending; fully focusing on the other person and being aware of what they are trying to communicate and listening; the process of hearing what is being said by another person are the most important aspects of being a nurse (Burnard 1997). Non-verbal communication is a major factor in communication, involving exchange of messages without words. It relates to emotional states and attitudes and the conveyance of messages through body language; body language has seven elements; gesture, facial expressions, gaze, posture, body space and proximity, touch and dress (Ellis et al 1995). Each of these elements can reinforce the spoken word and add meaning to the message; it isnt about what you say or how you say it but it also relates to what your body is doing while you are speaking (Oberg 2003). Patients often read cues from the nurses non-verbal behaviour, which can indicate interest or disinterest. Attentiveness and attention to the patient can be achieved through SOLER: S sit squarely, O Open posture, L learn towards the patient, E eye contact, R relax (Egan 2002). There must be congruency between verbal and non verbal messages for effective communication to be achieved. Non-verbal communication can contradict the spoken word and the ability to recognise these non-verbal cues is vitally important in nursing practice (McCabe 2006), for example, a patient may verbally communicate that they are not in pain, but their non-verbal communication such as facial expression may indicate otherwise. It is also important for the nurse to be aware of the congruency of their verbal and non-verbal communication. Any discrepancies between the two will have a direct influence on the message they are giving to patients, and may jeopardise the nurse/patient relationship. Other factors may affect communication in a negative way, endangering the process, and nurses must be aware of internal and external barriers (Schubert 2003). Lack of interest, poor listening skills, culture and the personal attitude are internal factors, which may affect the process. External barriers such as the physical environment, temperature, the use of jargon and/or technical words can also negatively influence the process (Schubert 2003). Reflection. To fully assess the development of communication skills the nurse can make use of reflection to gain a better insight and understanding of their skills (Siviter 2008). Reflection can also be used to apply theoretical knowledge to practice, thus bridging the gap between theory and practice (Burns Bulman 2000) and allows us opportunity, to develop a better insight and awareness of our actions both conscious and unconscious in the situation. Reflecting on events that take place in practice, allows opportunity not only to think about what we do, but also to consider why we do things. This helps us to learn from the experience and improve our future nursing practice (Siviter 2008). Reflection can be described as either reflection in action; occurring during the event, or reflection on action; which happens after the event has occurred (Taylor 2001) and is guided by a model, which serves as a framework within, which the nurse is able to work. It is usually a written process, and the use o f a reflective model uses questions to provide a structure and guide for the process (Siviter 2008). Reflective Models. There are numerous reflective models that may be utilised by the nursing professional, for example, Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988), Johns Model of Structured Reflection (1994) and Driscolls Model of Reflection (2002). Gibbs model (Appendix I) has a cyclical approach, consisting of six stages per cycle that guide the user through a series of questions, providing a structure for reflection on an experience. The first stage of the process is a descriptive account of the situation; what happened? Followed by an analysis of thoughts and feelings in the second stage; what were your thoughts and feelings? The third and fourth stages involve an evaluation of the situation, what was good and/or bad about the experience and an analysis allowing us to make sense of the situation. The last two stages are the conclusion of the situation, what else could have been done and finally an action plan to prepare for similar situations, which may arise in the future (Gibbs 1988). Similarly to Gibbs Reflective Cycle, Johns Model of Structured Reflection (Appendix II) and Driscolls (Appendix III) model of reflection promote learning through reflection. They have similar structures, which guide the user through the reflective process. Johns Model incorporates four stages; description, reflection, alternative actions and learning (Johns 1994) and Discolls model has three stages: a return to the situation, understanding the context and modifying future outcome (Discoll 2002). The three models described all have similarities in that the user is guided through the reflective process by describing the event, analysing their thoughts, feelings and actions and making plans for future practice. Considering the models of reflection described, the next component of this essay will make use of the Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1998) to provide a reflective account of a situation which I experienced during clinical placement in a community setting. Reflective Account. As part of this placement, I assisted my mentor, a health visitor, in the provision of a baby club for parents with babies and pre-school children, which takes place on a weekly basis and involves routine checks, such as baby-weighing, in addition to opportunity, for parents to socialise and opportunity for health visitors to provide information relating to the care and health of babies and children. During the second week of this placement, I was asked to assist in the delivery of a forthcoming health promotion session relating to dental health. I have chosen this event as a basis for my reflective account as I feel that health promotion is an important area to consider. It enables individuals to play a pivotal role in their own health (Webster and Finch 2002 in Scriven 2005) and is a means by which positive health can be promoted and enhanced alongside the prevention of illness (Downie et al 2000). It gives clients the knowledge to make informed decisions about their health and prevention of illness and is an area in which the nurse or healthcare professional plays a key role (WHO 1989). Description of the event. The event occurred during a weekly session at baby club that takes place in a community centre. My mentor (Health Visitor) and I were present along with a group of ten mothers and their babies. As this event took place during a group session, I will maintain confidentiality (NMC 2008) by not referring to any one individual. Consent was gained from all clients prior to the session commencing, in line with the NMC Code of Conduct (2008) and the environment was checked to ensure it was appropriate and safe for the session to take place. The aim of the session was to promote good dental health and oral hygiene amongst children and babies. Standard 1 of the Standards of Care for Health Visitors (RCN 1989) is to promote health, and the session aimed to provide clients with relevant, up-to-date information, thus allowing them to make informed choices about the future care of their childrens teeth. Chairs were set out in a semi-circle with a number of play mats and various baby toys placed in the centre. This allowed parents opportunity to interact in the session, to listen to the information and ask questions while at the same time being in close enough proximity to their children to respond to their needs. The Health Visitor and I sat at the front of the semi circle facing the group. I reintroduced myself to the group and gave a brief explanation of my role and the part I would play in the session. This was important; some of the clients were meeting me for the first time, and it is during this initial contact that jud gements are made about future interactions, and the service being provided. Positive initial interaction can provide a good foundation for a future beneficial relationship (Scriven 2005). The session was broken down into two parts: information giving, focusing on the promotion of dental health and prevention of illness in the form of tooth decay (Robotham and Frost 2005). Secondly, information relating to tooth brushing was given along with a demonstration undertaken by myself that showed the clients good oral hygiene could be achieved through effective tooth brushing. A question and answer session followed which allowed us to clarify any issues raised. Feelings and thoughts. In the week, preceding the session it was important for me to consider a systematic approach to the planning of the session. The first stage was to gather relevant, up-to-date information relating to the subject and plan how it could be incorporated in the session. The NMC Standards of Proficiency (2004a) states that nurses must engage in a continual process of learning and that evidence-based practice should be used (Bach and Grant 2009). The plan was discussed with my mentor and advice was sought about any adjustments which may be necessary. Prior to the session, I was apprehensive about delivering a health promotion session to clients (patients). I as I felt out of my depth as a first year student and my anxiety was exacerbated further as this was my first placement. However, support and encouragement from my mentor and other health visitors in the team helped me to relax. I was given the opportunity to discuss the topic with my mentor and was relieved when I was able to respond to any questions asked in an appropriate manner and that my knowledge had been increased through the research I had undertaken, thus boosting my confidence. Evaluation. Despite my initial reservation about my knowledge of the subject and apprehension at delivering a health promotion session, I feel that my mentors decision to include me in the delivery of the session benefitted me greatly in the development of my knowledge and self confidence. During the session, I feel that I communicated well verbally with clients and that my non-verbal communication was appropriate and corresponded to what I was saying. The clients were focused on the session and seemed genuinely interested, nodding when they understood and showed attentiveness by making regular eye contact. Feedback from clients after the session also allowed me to reflect on my communication; one of the clients stated afterwards that she had gained a lot from the session particularly the demonstration relating to tooth brushing and was now more aware of the importance of early oral hygiene to prevent problems later in the childs life. Analysis. Dental Health is a key Health Promotion target in Wales and is the most prevalent form of disease amongst children in Wales. Many of the participants were unaware of when and how childrens teeth should be cared for and the importance of ensuring good oral hygiene from an early age. The aim of the session was to provide information to parents as a means of promoting good oral hygiene and prevention of tooth decay in babies and young children. In order for the aim to be achieved, communication was a key element. Effective communication in a group can only be achieved if there is trust, participation, co-operation and collaboration among its members and the belief that they as a group are able to perform effectively as a group (Balzer-Riley 2008). The information was provided in a way that was easily understandable, a demonstration of how teeth should be brushed was given, and time was allowed for the clients time to ask questions. Communication and listening skills allowed us to discov er what knowledge the clients already had, and enabled us to adjust the information to meet the needs of the clients. Throughout the session, I was aware of my non-verbal communication and attempted to show attentiveness to individuals in the group, using the principles of SOLER I made the necessary adjustments. At times, this proved difficult as trying to lean towards the clients and maintain eye contact with each individual was not possible in a group situation. My anxiety about delivering the session was also an area which I had some concerns with. Nervousness can have an influence on how a message is delivered, and I was constantly aware of my verbal communication, particularly my paralanguage. I have a tendency to speak at an accelerated rate when I am nervous, and was aware that this may influence the way in which the message was being received. It is important to be aware of paralanguage in which the meaning of a word or phrase can change depending on tone, pitch or the rate at which the word(s) is spoken. Paralanguage may also include vocal sounds which may accompany speech and which can add meaning to the words being spoken (Hartley 1999). Throughout the session, I was aware of my verbal and non-verbal communication, and I tried to ensure that it corresponded to the information being given; I was also aware of non-verbal communication of the participants and made appropriate adjustments to my delivery when needed Conclusion. After the session had finished, I was given an opportunity to discuss it with my mentor. I was able to articulate what I felt had gone well, what hadnt gone quite as well and what could be improved. I noted that I was very nervous about delivering the session despite having the knowledge and understanding of the subject and felt that this may have been noticed by the participants. However, feedback from my mentor allowed me to realise that my nervousness was not apparent in my delivery. By undertaking this reflection, I have been able to question the experience and analyse my actions and behaviour, as a means of developing my knowledge for future practice Action plan. This session has helped with my learning and personal development and I now feel more confident in my ability to deliver health promotion activities in a group setting. I am, however, aware that speaking in a group setting is not an area I am very comfortable with but further practice will help alleviate this. I am confident that I will be able to use the knowledge gained on the subject of dental health in my future placements. In the future, I will repeat the process of thorough research, as it is best practice to keep knowledge up-to-date in order to provide care based on evidence (NMC 2008). Summary. In summary, communication is a complex process and an essential skill which the nurse must be aware of in every aspect, of care and treatment they give to patients. A full awareness of not only the spoken word, but also the influence non-verbal communication has on the messages being communicated, is essential in the development of a therapeutic relationship between nurse and patient. The process of reflecting upon practice is also an essential element of knowledge development. After consideration of a number of reflective frameworks, the use of Gibbs Reflective Cycle as a structure for creating a reflective account has proven to be beneficial in the exploration of personal thoughts and feelings in relation to a specified event and I recognise the importance of reflection as a learning tool that can enhance knowledge and practice.

Biomass as an Alternative Energy Essay -- Power Global Warming Climate

Biomass Abstract: The current use of energy in the United States, especially California, is foreshadowing catastrophe in our environment. Due to high demand of fossil fuels, the air is filled with more pollution every day. In addition to, it can increase the chances of having global warming. Since fossil fuels are generated from raw materials which are easy and cheap users are becoming extremely dependent on them. The main problem with fossil energy is that the supply of fossil fuels is not continuous. However, alternative energy is continual and harmless to the environment. Biomass does not pollute the atmosphere as much as natural gas. One of the most convenient alternative energies that are currently used for minor purposes is biomass. From the significant results of recent and past use of biomass, it can be considered trustworthy as the main source of energy in the future. Introduction: The energy that we use presently has raised numerous questions, whether or not it would bring us danger. Thus, scientists tried to find new types of energy that we can use in the future that would not increase the chances of having global warming for other environmental crises. Renewable energy has been examined and tested for many years; and, it [has been proven that it is much better than fossil fuels. Types of renewable or alternative energy include wind power, solar power, and geothermal energy (About, Alternative Energy Resources 2007). Particularly, biomass, â€Å"in the energy production industry, refers to living and recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Most commonly, biomass refers to plant matter grown for use as biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for pr... ...w.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/biomass.html Biomass (2007). EduGreen. Retrieved July 24, 2007, from vvvvvvhttp://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/renew/biomass.htm Biomass (2007). Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 21, 2007, from vvvvvvhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass Biomass Energy Basics (2007). NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved July 22, 2007, from http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_biomass.html Biomass Energy Vol.3 (2007). Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons Biomass 9 Ramamurthi, R., Kastury, Satish, & Smith, Wayne H. (2000). BIOENERGY vision for the new millennium. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers. Renewable Energy Technologies and their Pros and Cons, Biomass (2007). Loma Prieta. Retrieved July 23, 2007, from http://www.lomaprieta.sierraclub.org/greenpower/renewabletech.htm#Biomass

Cathay Pacific Essay

HistoryIn 1946 two ex air force pilots Roy Farrell and Sydney de Kantzow founded Cathay Pacific in Hong Kong. Both of them contributed HK$1 so that their new found airline could be registered. Even though at first it was based in Shanghai, both founders shifted to Hong Kong where they established Cathay Pacific. According to Gavin (1988) 1960 was a good and prosperous year for the airline as they bought their rivals Hong Kong Airways. By 1964 it had more then a million customers. The and by 1967 they were unlimited customers. In the same era it also bought its first jet engined aircraft. It was the Convair 880. It seemed as if here was success after success because soon after buying the new aircraft they introduced their international flights. Cathay Pacific seemed to be soaring high as in 1999; a new head office was established in Hong Kong International Airport. They called it the Cathay City. Till today Cathay Pacific holds his head up high when it comes to quality service and success in the airline industry (Ashok 2003 p110)Part 2SuccessCathays success has based on her wide-range of service all around the world especially in Asia, and modern management orientation and employees from over ten countries. In every country their service is considered as quality service as they always make the customers journey pleasant one. The reason why Cathaywas so successful is that it has always believed in quality customer care and new strategies. They know what those successful in the past may not make them successful again as the world keeps changing. They believe that is their employees and human resource which make them successful. Their success lies in the airline’s corporate philosophy which is â€Å"service straight from the heart† and determination for constant improvement (Chan 2000 p473). They believe that they have to deliver the best service and fulfil all the requirements of the passengers so that they have a pleasant journey Part 3 Company StructureLike in most organizations here too top management, technical support staff , middle management, administrative  support staff and technical core are interrelated and serve more then one function.(Daft 2007 p27) The company structure of Cathay Pacific is not a complex one. The head of the organization is the chairperson this case it is Chris Pratt he joined the company in 1978. Then is the Tony Tyler the executive director. He directly reports to the chairpersonAll heads of the all the departments report reports directly to both the chair person and the executive director. John Slosar is the Chief Operating Officer he is the head of the most important department which is the operations departmentAfter the operations department the next important department is the Corporate Development department. The head of this department is Ian Shiu,The next important department is the Finance department. The director of this department is James E. Hughes-HallettThe next most important department is the Flight Operations department Nick Rhodes is the director of this department. The next most important department is the Sales and Marketing Department. James Barrington is the head of this Department. The next most important department is the Personnel department. The head of this department is William Chau. The next most important department is the Information Management department. Edward Nicol is the head of this department. The next important department is the Cargo Department. Rupert Hogg is the director of this department. Another important department is the corporate Affairs department. Quince Chong is the head of this department. Yet another important department is the service delivery department Ivan Chu is the head of this department. Last but not least is eth engraining department. The head of this department  is Christopher Gibbs References Ashok Ranchhod (2003); CIM Coursebooks 2002-2003 Diploma Case Study Book: Analysis and Decision (CIM Workbooks 2003/04) Butterworth-Heinemann; Revised edition p110Chan D (2000); Air wars in Asia: competitive and collaborative strategies and tactics in action Journal of Management Development , Vol 19 : 6 Pp473 488Daft, B.L. (2007); Organisation Theory and Design, 9th. Ed., South-Western p27Gavin Young (1988) ;Beyond Lion Rock: The Story of Cathay Pacific Airways Hutchinson Radius.

Law Enforcement Cameras

The debate over whether red light cameras are effective or not can cause a great divide among any group of people. Proponents of the cameras say that they are effective in reducing accidents and those against them are adamant that they are only in place to increase revenues for local law enforcement. Red light cameras are cameras that are placed at intersections and connected to traffic signals. The camera is triggered by any vehicle entering the intersection above a certain speed and after the signal light has turned red.While many red light camera scoffers argue that driver's insurance rates will go up, these types of violations are similar to parking tickets and should not affect rates or driving record. The statement by many that red light cameras are only in place for city revenue. This paper will bring three facts that indicate that red light cameras are in place to make communities money and not for reducing accidents. The debate over whether red light cameras are effective or not can cause a great divide among any group of people.Proponents of the cameras say that they are effective in reducing accidents and those against them are adamant that they are only in place to increase revenues for local law enforcement. Red light cameras are cameras that are placed at intersections and connected to traffic signals. The camera is triggered by any vehicle entering the intersection above a certain speed and after the signal light has turned red.While many red light camera scoffers argue that driver's insurance rates will go up, these types of violations are similar to parking tickets and should not affect rates or driving record. The statement by many that red light cameras are only in place for city revenue. This paper will bring three facts that indicate that red light cameras are in place to make communities money and not for reducing accidents.

Free Essays on Politics And The Media

In America, the media holds a powerful and effective position in politicizing and socializing the general populace. The main political function of the media is to inform and analyze while being accountable. However the question of whether the media produces a pluralist democracy, or fosters a â€Å"one dimensional society† still remains unanswered. Many contemporary philosophers conclude that the media does contribute to both, some even postulate other drawbacks, for instance they posit that the media maintains elite power both in the corporate and political sector. On the other hand, some intellectual thinkers have theorized that the media, especially advertisement, is a major influence to substantiate the economy. One common belief shared by all contemporary media critics is that the media reflects and produces values of its own, even though their onus is initially to inform. In America the media has become a corporation in a corporate dominated society, it has become a bias agency of politicization. Powerful business corporations and politicians intertwine, both using the media to indoctrinate the mass populace in order to consummate a political and social consensus. This in turn maintains their elite positions. â€Å"Hollywoodism† and advertisement contributes to American imperialism by generating a desire among oversea consumers to buy American products. The impact of the American media has politicized a pluralist democracy among the majority by creating a marginilized society, leaving the corporations, including the media, and the American politicians at the top of the pinnacle concerning political decisions and elite power. Mass communications used to be, in itself, an autonomous solely owned corporation. However, this changed by the 1980’s, the majority of all major American media- magazines, televisions, radios, books, newspapers, and movies- were controlled by fifty giant corporations. Today, only twenty-three conglomerate cor... Free Essays on Politics And The Media Free Essays on Politics And The Media In America, the media holds a powerful and effective position in politicizing and socializing the general populace. The main political function of the media is to inform and analyze while being accountable. However the question of whether the media produces a pluralist democracy, or fosters a â€Å"one dimensional society† still remains unanswered. Many contemporary philosophers conclude that the media does contribute to both, some even postulate other drawbacks, for instance they posit that the media maintains elite power both in the corporate and political sector. On the other hand, some intellectual thinkers have theorized that the media, especially advertisement, is a major influence to substantiate the economy. One common belief shared by all contemporary media critics is that the media reflects and produces values of its own, even though their onus is initially to inform. In America the media has become a corporation in a corporate dominated society, it has become a bias agency of politicization. Powerful business corporations and politicians intertwine, both using the media to indoctrinate the mass populace in order to consummate a political and social consensus. This in turn maintains their elite positions. â€Å"Hollywoodism† and advertisement contributes to American imperialism by generating a desire among oversea consumers to buy American products. The impact of the American media has politicized a pluralist democracy among the majority by creating a marginilized society, leaving the corporations, including the media, and the American politicians at the top of the pinnacle concerning political decisions and elite power. Mass communications used to be, in itself, an autonomous solely owned corporation. However, this changed by the 1980’s, the majority of all major American media- magazines, televisions, radios, books, newspapers, and movies- were controlled by fifty giant corporations. Today, only twenty-three conglomerate cor...

Zinc finger nuclease technology and its potential for modelling and treating disease The WritePass Journal

Zinc finger nuclease technology and its potential for modelling and treating disease Introduction Zinc finger nuclease technology and its potential for modelling and treating disease IntroductionMechanisms of DNA double strand break repair  Ã‚   Gene edition using ZFNs gene disruption and gene correction Gene addition Therapeutic applications of ZFNsLimitations of ZFNsReferences Related Introduction Methods to introduce site specific, stable modifications in complex genomes hold great potential, not only for the study of gene function but also for biotechnological and therapeutic applications (Sollu et al., 2010).   A promising new approach is based on zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs), artificially constructed endonucleases that are designed to make a double strand break in a pre-determined genomic target sequence. This can then be followed by the generation of desired modifications during subsequent DNA repair. ZFNs are engineered to contain a DNA binding domain, composed of zinc finger proteins, and a non-specific endonuclease domain derived from the FokI restriction enzyme (Urnov et al., 2010). The zinc finger protein region provides a ZFN with the ability to bind to a discrete base sequence. Each zinc finger domain consists of   ÃŒ ´ 30 amino acids which fold into a ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ± structure, this is stabilised by chelation of a zinc ion by the conserved Cys2-His2 residues (Durai et al., 2005). Each domain recognises and binds to approximately 3bp of DNA. Binding to longer sequences is achieved by linking several of these zinc fingers in tandem to form zinc finger proteins. As the catalytic FokI domain must dimerise to induce a double strand break (Vanamee et al., 2001), two different ZFN subunits are designed that bind the sequence of interest in the opposite orientation and with the correct spacing. The combined target sequence is sufficient in length to be statistically unique, even in complex genomes (Sollu et al., 2010) (figure 1). ZFNs have been proven to work successfully in Arabidopsis thaliana (Zhang et al., 2010), Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster (Carroll et al., 2008), zebrafish (Doyon et al., 2008), rats (Mashimo et al., 2010) and human embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) (Zou et al., 2009). Mechanisms of DNA double strand break repair  Ã‚   All eukaryotic cells have effective mechanisms to repair double strand breaks in DNA. The two primary repair pathways are non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous directed repair (HDR) (Jackson and Bartek, 2009). These highly conserved pathways can be exploited to generate a defined genetic outcome across a wide range of cell types (Urnov et al., 2010). In NHEJ, the two broken ends are simply ligated back together. If the double strand break is complex, creating ends that are not compatible then repair by NHEJ will be mutagenic; the repaired DNA will contain small insertions or deletions at the site of the break, resulting in gene inactivation (Durai et al., 2005). If a double stranded oligonucleotide is provided with overhangs (sticky ends) complementary to those left by the ZFNs, it will be ligated into the chromosome, this approach can be used to add tags to endogenous genes. Alternately, two simultaneous double strand breaks made on the same chromosome can lead to a deletion of the entire intervening stretch (Lee et al., 2010) (figure 2). The other major repair pathway is HDR, a form of homologous recombination that faithfully copies the genetic information from a DNA molecule of related sequence. In HDR the 5Ê ¹ ends of the double strand break are resected to generate 3Ê ¹ single stranded tails, allowing strand invasion by donor DNA, which serves as a template for DNA replication (Durai et al., 2005). In normal double strand break repairs the DNA donor is the sister-chromatid, therefore the template is identical to the damaged DNA, resulting in a perfect form of repair. In gene targeting an exogenous donor DNA template is provided (usually an episomal or linear extrachromosomal donor) in combination to the ZFNs. If the donor DNA specifies solely a single nucleotide change, such as a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) encoding a novel allele, this will result in gene correction, that subtly edits the endogenous allele (Urnov et al., 2005). HDR can also be used for the addition of genes, if the donor pro vided carries an open reading frame (ORF), a transgene or even multiple trasngenes at the position corresponding to the site of the break, the sequence will be transferred to the chromosome (Moehle et al., 2007) (figure 2). Figure 2 | Types of genome editing made possible using ZFNs. The two primary repair pathways: non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous directed repair (HDR) with the different outcomes that can result from the introduction of a site specific DNA double strand break. Adapted from (Urnov et al., 2010). Gene edition using ZFNs gene disruption and gene correction The simplest means of gene editing is gene disruption, which takes advantage of errors introduced during DNA repair to disrupt or abolish the function of a gene or genomic region. Gene knockout (KO) is an affective tool for analysing gene function and generating model animals that recapitulate genetic disorders. Using ZFN technology, Mashimo et al., 2010 created knockout rats with X-linked Server Combined Immunodeficiency (X-SCID). They injected mRNAs encoding ZFNs designed to target the rat interleukin 2 receptor gamma (II2rg) locus, where orthologous human and mouse mutations cause X-SCID, into the pronucleus of fertilised rat oocytes. They found that the offspring carried a variety of deletion/insertion mutations, most of which were expressed as frameshift or splicing errors, resulting in no or very little expression of II2rg mRNA. The ZFN modified founders faithfully transmitted their genetic changes to the next generation along with the SCID phenotype (Mashimo et al., 2010). The X-SCID rats generated in studies such as this can be valuable in vivo tools for pre-clinical testing during drug development or gene therapy as well as model systems for examining the treatment of xenotransplanted malignancies. Another approach, gene correction allows the transfer of single nucleotide changes from a DNA donor to the chromosome following a ZFN induced double strand break. Urnov et al., 2005 designed ZFNs directed against the X-linked SCID mutation hotspot in the interleukin-2 receptor-ÃŽ ³ (IL2RÃŽ ³) gene. Using the ZFNs on K562 cell lines, they found that ~20% of the population carried a modification at the endogenous loci and about 7% of the cells were homozygous for the donor specified genotype, which was accurately reflected at the mRNA and protein levels. The modified cells were found to be stable for extended periods in cell culture while transcriptionally and translationally manifesting their new genotype (Urnov et al., 2005). Gene addition Transgenesis of human cells is used in functional genomics, proteomics and protein structure-function studies, and is routinely accomplished by random integration combined with drug selection. Expression of a randomly integrated transgene can be unpredictable and tends to be unstable over time due to epigenetic effects (DeKelver et al., 2010). The precisely placed double strand break induced by ZFNs can stimulate integration of long DNA stretches into a predetermined genomic location, resulting in site-specific gene addition. Moehle et al., 2007 introduced ZFNs directed against the interleukin-2 receptor-ÃŽ ³ (IL2RÃŽ ³) gene (exon 5), in combination with a DNA donor carrying a 12bp tag and a 900bp open reading frame (ORF), flanked by locus specific homology arms into HEK293 cells. After 72 hours, ~5% of the chromatids had acquired the transgene between the ZFN recognition sites (Moehle et al., 2007). ZFNs have also been used in human EPCs and iPSC to efficiently target a drug resistance marker to a specific gene. Hockemeyer et al., 2009, used ZFNs specific for the OCT4 (POU5F1) locus and a donor constructs containing a splice acceptor (SA) followed by an enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP)-2A-puromycin cassette. They reported expression of two proteins, a fusion protein comprising the first 132 amino acids of human OCT4 fused to eGFP (OCT4EX1-eGFP) and puromycin N-acetyltransferase, both under the control of the endogenous OCT4 promoter, therefore generating reporter cells which can monitor the pluripotent state of human ESCs (Hockemeyer et al., 2009). Therapeutic applications of ZFNs Site specific manipulation of the genome by ZFNs has revolutionised biology and holds great promise for molecular medicine (Lombardo et al., 2007). For example a corrected allele of a disease causing gene could be curative in several monogenetic diseases. Alternatively, the knockout of a gene encoding a virus receptor could be shown to eliminate rather than merely reduce infection. ZFN mediated gene disruption is the first ZFN based approach that has been taken to clinical trails, specifically for the treatment of glioblastoma (NCT01082926) and HIV (NCT00842634 and NCT01044654). In glioblastoma phase I clinical trials, the glucocorticoid receptor gene is disrupted by ZFNs as part of a T cell based cancer immunotherapy (Urnov et al., 2010). In the HIV trials, ZFNs targeting the chemokine (C-C motif) receptor type 5 (CCR5) gene have been delivered via adenoviral vector to isolated T cells from subjects. The CCR5 protein is required for certain common types of HIV infection to enter into and infect T cells. The ZFN mediated CCR5 knockout T cells then are returned to the subject.   (Perez et al., 2008). An advantage of using ZFN technology is that it creates a fully penetrant, heritable gene knockout that will persist for the lifetime of that cell and its progeny, therefore removing the need for persistent therapeutic exposure. Limitations of ZFNs A potential limitation of the ZFN targeting approach is off-target DNA breaks induced at related sequences elsewhere in the genome, which may cause unpredictable genotoxic. To overcome this, ZFNs can be designed to with longer DNA recognition sites such as 12bp-18bp, which upon dimerisation of the FokI nuclease domain will recognise a 24bp-23bp sequence (such sites are rare even in complex genomes). This alongside bioinformatic tools such as SELEX (systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment) can be used determine the specificity for a ZFN DNA binding domain and generate a rank order of potential off-target site with highest similarity (Tuerk et al., 1990).   Another challenge when designing ZFNs is the choice delivery system (DNA, RNA or viral), the ideal method has proven to be dependent on cell type. 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